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Development and overview of Western philosophy
Western philosophy traces its origins in ancient Greece (AD 1500), and appears to be named “Tales” (Thales of Miletus, 624-546 B.C.E.), a Greek scholar. Which scholars in the field of philosophy recognized as the father of Western philosophy. He set the framework for explaining reality by asking questions about the elemental elements that form the basis of all existence. (What is the primary element) by analyzing two important issues: “What is real?” and “How to explain the change of things” (Stumpf, 1989: 4). As a result, the disciples and truth-seekers (philosophers) sought to find answers in the framework in which Teles had laid the groundwork and explained the answers. There are two main areas of thought that Western philosophers are interested in: the problem of reality or metaphysical theory (i.e. ancient Greek philosophers to medieval philosophers, B.C.E. . 600 – A.D.
3.1 Context and basis of Western philosophy
3.1.1 Due to the origin of the early thinking of answering (before) human history It has been in operation for thousands of years. Myths of different gods from one generation to the next (The concept is spiritualism, Animism.)
3.1.2 Until around 700 B.C., there was a written record (eg Homer’s Mythology, Homer ) when it was recorded. would have to read Think and critique what is written.
3.1.3 There is criticism that this myth Bringing the gods to be too human-like (killing, adultery, betrayal, betrayal, etc.), most thought that these myths were just human imaginations.
3.1.4 In conjunction with the territories of Europe (ancient Greece), city-states and colonies were established by the Greeks. master and slave
3.1.5 Greek citizens have time to think, review questions, and try to find answers. without relying on gods (This is the final answer), but try to find an answer based on experience and reason.
3.1.6 Attempts are made to describe what is natural. without relying on the supernatural
3.1.7 Subsequently, it was developed and divided into eras: Ancient Greece, Middle Ages, New Ages, and Modern Ages. (The division principle is time period…..content/place/situation)
3.1.8 Observations
1) Studying the history of Western philosophers, do not underestimate the “answers” as nonsense because every answer has its origins according to circumstances.
2) a study of the thought history of western philosophers are divided into large groups (The details are different for each thinker) The focus is the same. but with different details
3) the concept of western philosophers has a developmental nature from teacher to student not wanting to refute but the development of the philosophical thought development movement Not in new ideas or creeds, but in philosophers’ attempts to achieve greater truths.
3.2 Western Philosophy of the Ages
Western philosophy can be divided into four eras (Copleston, 1964):
3.2.1 Ancient Greek Western Philosophy
A. GENERAL OVERVIEW:
Philosophy Ancient Greece covers from the beginning of Greek philosophers to the Middle Ages (before the first century AD), with an emphasis on metaphysical problems, namely problems of the truth of nature. of the world and its processes It is a need within human beings. looking for answers describe the nature that exists Think for an answer with principles (experience + reason) which can be divided into three phases: (Kerati Boonjuea, 1979)
Early
Greek philosophy§ Glorious
Greek philosophy§ Post-glorious Greek philosophy (decay)
1) Early Greek philosophy (about 600-500 BC)
was characterized as a natural philosopher, that is, interested in the problem of primal elements – divided into schools. mainly based on the location of the city
1.1) Question
Where does the world (things in nature) come from and the problem of change
1.1.1) The Greeks think that things do not happen randomly (because the things that exist, but the things that exist in nature) do not exist. must come from what exists The non-existent cannot give existence to the existing.) Before we give one to another, We must have that before we can give that to others, where do things come from? (Primary Issues)
1.1.2) The Greeks noticed that something changed, e.g. from a child to an adult. from a mango to a mango tree what caused the change
1.2) Answers
Things that exist, come from something. which is the origin of all things, which is the “primary element” (Stumpf, 1989) is the basis and principle of all things that exist; and everything is a process from the first element back to that first element (Changes) So, “What is a primal?” was the problem of early Greek philosophers. (Ionian Island Formation) with the answer gradually developing from concrete to abstract, such as the primary element is (Copleston, 1964, Kirati, 1979).
1.2.1) “Water” (Teles, Thales of Miletus, 624–546 B.C.E.), because there was only “water” around him.
1.2.2) “Infinite formless substance” (Anakzemander, Anaximander, 610–545 B.C.E.) is of infinite nature. But this substance is a formless substance that can develop itself into various elements.
1.2.3) “Air” (Anakcimenes, Anaximenes, 588–524 BCE), because air is everywhere. and water also comes from the air.
1.2.4) “Numbers” (Pythagorean, Pythagoras, 570 – 497 BC). The balance of proportions is the basis of all things.
1.2.5) “Change” (Haracritus, Heraclitus, 536–470 BC). The symbol of change is fire. Things are always changing. Stillness is an illusion. (You cannot bathe in the same river twice.)
1.2.6) “Stability” (Parmenides, Parmenides, 515–450 BC), symbol is soil.
1.2.7) “Mind and Matter” (Anakzagoras, Anaxagoras of Clazomene, 499–428 B.C.E.)
1.2.8) “Earth, Water, Wind, Fire” (Empedocles, Empedocles, 492–430 BC) The transformation is the result of the separation/combination of the four elements.
2) Greek philosophy of the heyday (about 450 – 300 BC)
began with the idea that Problems facing philosophers only to think about what the primary element is with the problem of change There are a lot of answers, which one is right and which one is wrong. What are you measuring/deciding? There are only conflicts of thought, so there is a group of philosophers interested in finding the principle of measuring truth for the benefit of better living (Samak Burawat, 2001, Kirati, 1979, Copleston, 1964, Stumpf, 1989).
2.1) Question: Is there a truth that is a definite principle?
2.2) Answer: There are two approaches to the answer: the first line has the idea that there is no fixed measure of truth. The truth depends on the individual and the second answer is the idea that the truth must have certain principles. in which the answer is presented through the following philosophers/philosophers
2.2.1) Sophists (around the 5th century B.C.E.)
– characterized as a group of philosophers who set themselves up as teachers.
Academics for Political Success
– There is an idea that there is no fixed measure of truth. But there are subjective characteristics (Subjective), that is, the truth depends on each person. There is no fixed truth. What is good is good for oneself/individual. Each person has its own criteria/measures.
– There is an opening of a teaching school, collecting tuition fees to play a role in society, politics, and governance. In order to rule the country, there must be “good rhetoric” to overcome others by arguing.
– A famous philosopher, Protagoras of Abdera, ca. 480-410 B.C.E., proposed the idea that “People are the measure of the truth of all things” (not the founder but is a famous philosopher among the Sophies)
2.2.2) Socrates (ca. 470-399 B.C.E.)
– There is a concept that “there is a fixed measure of truth”, that is
, the truth does not depend on any one person. But the truth is in the nature of “multiple choice” (Objective), that is, there is a certain truth. It is not based on people or places.
– The main idea of Socrates is “morality is knowledge”
, that is, all human beings have a good nature. So only do good things. human beings are not doing well because he didn’t know what he was doing was not good. (If he knows it’s bad, he won’t do it.) Therefore, it is necessary to teach humans what is good and what is right so that humans can only do good things.
– Use the method of dialogue (dialectical, dialectic) i.e. start by asking questions and listening to the answer from the interlocutor, and gradually draw knowledge from the interlocutor and increase the knowledge of the interlocutor.
2.2.3) Plato (Plato, ca. 428–347 BC)
– Disciple and agree with Socrates’ idea that there is a
certain principle of truth.
– The key idea is that the “type theory” is to think that the reality seen in the world is an illusion, not an actual reality. Because true (universal) reality exists in the world of ideas, which is not in this world, things in the world are imitations. Through spiritual (intellectual) reasoning
1.2.3) Aristotle (Aristotle, ca. 384–322 BC)
– Disciple of Plato. and agree that there is a certain principle of truth
– the truth exists and not outside the world Or live in a world
like Plato thought. but the truth exists in the world (The non-real world) What we see in the world (Unit specific things such as Mr. A.) Exist, not illusory as Plato thought. Humans can come to know the truth through the process of universal disassembly. which is the work of human intelligence by obtaining basic information from sensory experience to understand the conception is universal of that thing)
– Explain the changes of things that the changes
are the development of “Potency” (Potency) to “Real” (Act), that is, the things that are there are both real. (the state of being at that moment) and the latent state (the intrinsic power or potential of that thing) that can be according to that type.) Change is the progression from the real state to the latent state of that thing.
– In addition, Aristotle describes the change of things. using the concept of “Cause / Factor” (Cause) He explained that the change of things. There are four causes: material cause, formal cause, effective cause, and final cause.
3) Post-Prosperous Greek Philosophy (A.D.) (ca. 300 – A.D. 529)
The concept is characterized by the introduction of old things or ideas of philosophers in the past. or applied to find a way to achieve the truth Emphasis on answering ethical problems How to be happy, for example
3.1) New Plato (Neoplatonism) brought the idea of Plato to think and help explain the religion that he worshiped. A notable philosopher, Plotinus (c. 205-270) (Late Prosperity to Decline), put forward the “Theory of Overflow”, that is, the reality of “the One” (Egatta), which is complete Everything that is perfect must overflow. Overflowing from The One becomes the birthplace of all things. Anything near Ekata (The One) has a different degree of perfection.
3.2) Hedonism, a philosophical doctrine that answers ethical problems Teach that human beings take advantage of immediate (physical) happiness as the goal of life. A wise person is someone who takes pleasure in every opportunity.
3.3) Epikurus Epicureanism teaches that happiness is in moderation. A wise person is someone who is moderate in the pursuit of satisfaction.
3.4) Stoicism, whose founder is Zeno of Citium, ca. 336-263 B.C.E., teaches that happiness is peace of mind. Have a heart of equanimity in life
3.5) Cynicism teaches that happiness is cutting everything. lead a life without thinking too much don’t want much life will be happy
b. Conclusion: The main characteristics of the concept of Greek philosophy
1) Western Greek philosophers trying to find answers with human intelligence (Don’t rely on myths and legends)
2) Look for fixed laws of nature. (Originally there was an understanding that it was not fixed. Everything is according to the will of the gods.) Questions and answers, from matterism (early Greek Western philosophy) to idealism (Greek western philosophy period) and ends with the answer to the ethical/philosophical problem (Greek Western Philosophy, the Decline)
3) based on the answer given by the Greek philosopher. It is the basis for further thinking of answers with human intelligence. (science)
3.2.2 Medieval Western Philosophy (100–1500 AD): Organization of Christianity using Greek philosophy
A. Introduction: The world of the Hellenism era
In the territories of the Western world (Europe), Greek culture is considered the model of civilization. Both in terms of way of life, ideas, politics, government, etc., even though the Greek empire will fall. and was replaced by the Roman Empire (Romans occupy Greek and adopted the Greek culture as their own, so it was named Greco-Roman) after the fall of the Roman Empire And Europe was divided into districts (countries), each of which also adopted the Greco-Roman culture as the model of its civilization. Or simply called the Hellenist world, that is, the use of Greek culture as a model of human life in Europe at that time (Samak Burawas, 2001).
B. Context/situation of Medieval Western Philosophy
1) Roman Empire (The Romans took their own Greek culture) in the Hellenic world. (Focus on escaping from evil in the world for salvation) The Greek civilization was studied extensively. The study of Greek philosophy based on the ideas of famous Greek thinkers in the past. There was an opening of a philosophy teaching school. especially the study of philosophical concepts aimed at liberation (Emphasis on ethical problems how to be happy)
2) Confrontation between Western and Eastern cultures Greek culture and Hindu culture Indo-European culture (Greek and Indian) and Semitic culture (Jewish, Christianity, Islam).
have a confrontation between Greek philosophy with Eastern religions (Hindus) and Semitic religions (Each line has its own identity), but when they have to face each other. therefore, it is characterized by convergence for the persistence of its own line (Jostein, ny).
3) After Emperor Constantine’s application to Christianity (272–337), Christianity was the center of the Roman Empire. (Even after the Roman Those who beat the Romans also accepted Christianity.) Christianity was propagated and prospered in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the main way of life for the Roman Empire. At the same time, the Romans inherited Greek ideas and culture that were both consistent and contrary. contradicting Christianity
At the same time, the leader of Christianity There are two kinds of attitudes towards Greek philosophy. that is, one considers Greek philosophy to be a non-Christian thought. is therefore the enemy of Christianity. the other Greek philosophy is regarded as the ability of man to use reason and intelligence to find truth, and can be used to explain Christian teachings.
4) As the Roman Empire gradually weakened There is a division of the former Roman Empire. (Greek-Roman culture) into three cultures:
4.1) Western Europe, Latin Christian Culture with Rome as the center (Christianity)
4.2) Eastern Europe Greek Christian Culture with the city of Constantinople (Greek Byzantium) as the center
4.3) North Africa and Middle East Asia Developed into Islamic culture (Arabs). In addition, the Arabs occupied the former center of the ancient Greek empire. (Alexandria) puts Greek science in the hands of Islam.
C. Meaning and Problems of Medieval Western Philosophy (Christian philosophy)
Christian philosophy refers to “Philosophical Views of Christians” (Kirati Boonchua, 1984) The focus of Christian philosophers’ attention was the application of philosophy that was accepted at that time to explain their belief in Christianity. Help organize and explain Christian beliefs. There are many important Christian philosophers who have tried to harmonize Christianity with Greek philosophy.
Therefore, the problem of medieval Western philosophy is the merger between Greek philosophy and religion. (Especially Christianity)
D. Questions and answers of Christian philosophers.
The question is how to explain the belief in Christianity? based on Greek philosophy especially the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. By splitting the explanation into two big things.
1) Explaining that Greek philosophy does not conflict with Christianity (Let Christian leaders appreciate philosophy) Explain the relationship between Greek philosophy and Christianity. want to present the idea Faith and knowledge do not contradict each other. but can go together Knowledge/intelligence helps us understand beliefs. Trying to harmonize philosophy and theology. and based on Greek philosophy Make the teachings of Christianity / Islam become academic (theology) until it concludes that in those days that Philosophy is the Handmaid of Theology (Saint Thomas Aquinas).
2) Explaining that Christianity uses Greek philosophy to help explain Christianity According to Plato’s philosophy (Philosophy) or Aristotle (Philosophy of Assammaster and Islamic Philosophy) by bringing specific concepts to help explain Not bringing everything to talk about. or adapt the teachings of Christianity to Greek philosophy.
E. Examples of important Christian philosophers
Scholars of Christianity Who brought Greek philosophy to help organize and explain the teachings of Christianity, there are many important people, such as St. Paul (St. Paul, A.D. 10–67), Saint Augustine (St. Augustine, A.D. . 354 – 430) Saint Anselm (St. Anselm, 1033 – 1109) Saint Albert (St. Albert the Great, 1193 – 1280) Saint Bonaventure (St. Bonaventura, AD 1221-1274), Saint Thomas Aquinas (St. Thomas Aquinas, AD 1225-1274), etc. In this chapter, we present two of the most prominent in Western philosophy. middle, including
1) Saint Augustine (354–430 A.D.): Applying Plato’s concept to Pollinus Christianity,
Saint Augustine introduced the concept of Plato and New Plato. (Especially by applying Plato’s concept to the Poltinus approach) to explain Christianity (Byrne, 1995: 337), for example, using the concept of “type theory” to describe God. and the creation of all things of God
saint augustine Neither agrees with Plato’s describing that God (a kind of world) is an eternal truth. It is the fundamental principle of all things. It’s the form of the whole thing. He further explained that “God created everything with a free will” (Stumpf, 1989: 142). to existence But He didn’t complete it all at once. When God created all things He also put in it the seminal principle. In order for things to continue to create themselves according to the pattern of things as God has set, and things to pass on their nature to subsequent generations, things are unique according to God’s pattern. The type here is not a copy from God (the world of type), according to the Platonic way, but rather the characteristics that God has given each thing according to its type.
2) St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274): An introduction to Aristotle’s conception of Christianity.
Society during the time of Saint Thomas Aquinas is still alive This was the period when Christianity flourished in Europe. There is an extensive study of Christian theology. meanwhile Aristotelian philosophy became popular while Islam was propagating, and Saint Thomas Aquinas had the opportunity to study Aristotle’s manuscripts. Therefore, it was seen that Aristotle’s philosophy could be used to explain Christianity (Byrne, 1995: 337), using the ideas of Plato and New Plato to help. Do you think that Christian reasoning and beliefs do not contradict each other? Because they come from the same source, God.
His focus is on explaining the theology of Christianity based on philosophy. He thinks philosophy is a good tool for explaining theology. to the point that philosophy exists to serve theology What interests you the most in your thoughts? “Trying to explain the relationship between man and God Man as a life must conduct himself to achieve the life of God” (Kirati, 1984: 240) using Christian teachings as the main and bring Aristotle’s philosophy to help explain and organize ideas
2.1) Application of the theory of matter and Aristotle’s model Let’s explain the creation of God.
Saint Thomas followed the teachings of Christianity. God created everything from non-being. Everything is divine and depends on God. Human beings are the ultimate in visible creation. He agreed with Aristotle that all things are the same and different. It is explained by the idea of matter and form. Things are composed of matter (Matter) and form (Stumpf, 2). 1989: 188) The two characteristics are different, though. But it is one in man, that is, man possesses all the same matter-of-mind characteristics that are limited in the world of the senses. But at the same time, human beings possess a spirit form with transcending potential. boundaries of the senses of the world into communion with the full life of God.
Relying on the grace of God to give human image and like him But at the same time, in human beings, the body cannot be cut off. “For human nature must have a physical and spiritual element” (Gratsch, 1985: 53). “This body and spirit are one without any medium” (Clark, 1972: 214). in every part of the body” (Gratsch, 1985: 53) are dependent on each other. if there is no soul.
The body would have no form. There is no life and cannot understand things without a body. The soul has no organ that leads to knowledge. Thus man is truly one spirit and body. 53) depend on each other if there is no soul The body would have no form. There is no life and cannot understand things without a body. The soul has no organ that leads to knowledge. Thus man is truly one spirit and body. 53) depend on each other if there is no soul The body would have no form. There is no life and cannot understand things without a body. The soul has no organ that leads to knowledge. Thus man is truly one spirit and body. 214).
By “the soul is present in every part of the body” (Gratsch, 1985: 53), dependent on each other. if there is no soul The body would have no form. There is no life and cannot understand things without a body. The soul has no organ that leads to knowledge. Thus man is truly one spirit and body. 214) By “the soul is present in every part of the body” (Gratsch, 1985: 53), dependent on each other. if there is no soul The body would have no form. There is no life and cannot understand things without a body. The soul has no organ that leads to knowledge. Thus man is truly one spirit and body.
2.2) Proving the existence of God
Saint Thomas Aquinas brought Aristotle’s metaphysics to explain God. He started with five proofs. This starts with considering the reality around it that is common. brought as proof to confirm the existence of God, including
2.2.1) Proof of motion (things are moving Finding the cause of the movement The first mover…. is God)
2.2.2) proof of cause (things cause another Sort the causes in descending order. Ultimately, the first cause… is God)
. 2.2.3) Proof of coincidence (Things are either coincidental/existable and non-existent, and both are and necessities, therefore there must be a thing (condition). that is the utmost necessity (It cannot be) and is the principle of all things… that is God)
. 2.2.4) Proof of the degree of perfection (things have different degrees of perfection. Continue in order of perfection. Ultimately to the state of supreme perfection… is God
2.2.5) Proof of cosmic order (things in the universe are organized and organized, so there must be a system, order… is God).
F. Summary of Medieval Western Philosophy
In Medieval Europe It was a time when the Greco-Roman culture which is like a great river in the western hemisphere, at some point it splits into three. (Western European (New Plato), Eastern European (Plato), and Arab (Aristotle), and finally, the three Greek cultures. will converge again in the renaissance era
3.2.3 Modern Western Philosophy (16th-18/19th centuries)
a. Meaning and definitions of modern Western philosophy Many aspects can be considered, including
1) Period: Modern Western philosophy refers to philosophical concepts that existed in Europe from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century (late Medieval Western Philosophy/Assachary Philosophy onwards).
2) Location aspect, modern western philosophy Most of the accepted philosophical concepts will be in the territory of Western Europe England area french and german
3) method/philosophical texture also called as “Renaissance” (Renaissance) is the study and organization of philosophy. with specific systems and methods (According to science) to systematize and return to study and apply the concepts of Greek philosophy to help organize the system of philosophical knowledge. Modern Western philosophers try to study and apply philosophical concepts to organize political systems as a science It is not the study of philosophy to serve or explain religion. (Christianity) As during the Middle Ages in Europe. but focusing on finding ways to acquire knowledge in a philosophical way (as a science)
b. Situation/Context
1) Beginning with the Renaissance era (trying to break free from religion and return to the study of Greek civilization) with (Christ) systematic religion So it’s time for philosophers to study philosophy as a philosophy. It is not the study of philosophy as an instrument of religion.
2) the origin, development and separation of mathematics and science from philosophy especially science There is a method of obtaining knowledge that is sure and universal. And can be used to develop and change society for human beings to have a more comfortable and comfortable living. As a result, philosophy is challenged. Because it doesn’t give an answer at all. (All philosophers agree) while mathematics and science provide “Universal answers” such as 1 + 1 = 2 (where positive, who adds 1 + 1 is still “2”) or Isaac Newton’s discovery of the law of gravity (where to experiment, who? experiment, the result is always the same), etc. Therefore, philosophy is challenged on how to acquire knowledge of philosophy. (Knowing the truth of philosophy/epistology)
3) The division into European countries, it is necessary to find a political model. Governance that does not depend on Christianity There is a need for reform/revolution in politics and governance to be applied in social life.
C. Problems/problems of philosophy
from the context of the situation at that time (circa 16th century) led to at least two problems/problems of philosophy:
1) Modern Western Philosophy Interested in epistemological problems, that is, the identification of methods of acquiring knowledge of philosophy (epistology), how to obtain universal truths according to philosophical methods, or how to know philosophical truth as a science. (Just as science has a method of obtaining knowledge according to science)
2) the application of philosophy to help organize the social and political system; the application of philosophical ideas to the system and to lay the foundation of society politics and economy (Context of the situation at the time)
D. Answers can be divided into two main answers (essences of modern Western philosophy) which are:
1) provide the principles of correct knowledge acquisition and of course the method of acquiring knowledge of philosophy (As a science) there are three main lines. (method of acquiring knowledge) is
1.1) Correct knowledge It must be acquired through human intelligence. with reason (Rationalism/Rationalism) because humans have a special feature is intelligence (Mind, intellect) can use reason to understand the truth. Reasons can give clear truths. clear and universal (Mathematics) Key philosophers in this group were Rene Descartes, 1596–1650, Baruch Spinoza, 1632–1677, Scott. Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, 1646 – 1716, rationalism Use the deductive method (Deduction) as the main method of seeking knowledge.
1.2) Accurate and universal knowledge It must resemble the scientific method of acquiring knowledge, that is, knowing and judging truth through sensory experience. (Emperorism/Experientialism, Empiricism). The main philosophers in this group were Francis Bacon, 1561-1626, Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679. John Locke (1632-1704) George Berkley (1685-1758) David Hume 1711 – 1776) Experientialism Use the induction method as the main method of seeking knowledge.
1.3) Before acquiring accurate and universal knowledge There must be a classification of truth. Some knowledge is perceived rationally. (Knowledge before sensory experience, A priori). Some knowledge must go through sensory experience (A posteriori). Important philosophers are Immanuel Kant (Immanuel Kant, 1724 – 1804)
2) systematization and development of social and political ideas, especially the promotion of a democratic regime seriously (Democracy) (Jostein, ny) so that the people of the country can compete freely, with the law (state) acting to stimulate the Compete and control not to interfere with each other. leading to an economic system of capitalism (Capitalism) or liberalism (Liberalism) emphasizing inviolable human rights optimistic view of man Humans have internal potential for administration. Therefore, it should encourage and facilitate human manipulation, relying on the “invisible hand”. Key philosophers include John Lock (John Lock, 1632-1704), Adam Smith (Adam Smith, c. 1723 – 1820), Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832), etc.
However, the political system government based on democracy Some philosophers disagree, especially Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679).
E. Overview of Modern Western Philosophy (Systematicization of philosophy as philosophy and application of philosophical concepts to political system and governance)
modern western philosophy It begins with an objection to the concept of medieval philosophy. with a strong emphasis on faith in God aiming to compromise the belief in Christianity By bringing the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle to explain the teachings of Christianity.
What modern Western philosophers are interested in is the logical method of finding the truth of philosophy (epistology). and a new scientific system Evolution started from the Renaissance. (Renaissance) with an emphasis on mathematical methods. (The certainty in the pursuit of the truth of mathematics) relies on reasoning (Descartes, Spinoza, Leipnich) and new knowledge. obtained from science Based on sensory experiences (Lock, Berkeley, Hume)
both rationalism and empiricism They affirmed that the idea of their group was the most correct. It is most suitable as a philosophical approach to acquiring knowledge. Experientialism attacks rationalism as not providing new knowledge. While rationalism asserts that the acquisition of conceptual knowledge in one’s group is How to find the truth accurately And of course, even more than that of the experiential side. Because mathematics can calculate the truth more and more in advance than experience. He saw that the experience gave knowledge only superficially. Flimsy, not universal, not profound, because the senses can always deceive us. But mathematical methods are systematic, rational, universal and necessary.
while the atmosphere of confrontation Between rationalism and empiricism intensified in the late period of modern Western philosophy, there was Immanuel Kant who tried to compromise the two philosophies. By pointing out the shortcomings of both methods. and harmonize the two philosophies together rationally We know the truth under “The frames/eyeglasses we wear”
meanwhile European context at that time There was the birth and secession of a new country. continuously Political organization is required. Governance and economic system As a result, there were some philosophers to answer the problems that society of that time wanted. by presenting the idea of organizing the political system and governance, especially the concept and the economic system of capitalism
G. Summary of modern western philosophy
modern western philosophy It was a time for a return to the consideration of philosophy as philosophy. Thinking that philosophy would have a universal and clear answer, like science, mathematics, which was the “popular science” of the time, philosophers tried to analyze and provide a guideline for finding the “answer” as universal and clear as science. all (Systematicization of Philosophy as Philosophy)
new era philosophy therefore giving importance to human beings Emphasizes the human philosophy as human beings have the potential to know and reach the truth.
3.2.1 Modern Western Philosophy
A. Meaning and definition of modern Western philosophy Many aspects can be considered, including
1) Time, covering the period from the 19th century onwards
2) Philosopher Covering since the post-immanuel Kant era.
3) Content/problems of philosophy, including applying philosophical concepts to answer questions about values, meanings, principles of life.
b. Context/Situation
Professor Keerati Boonchuea (1979: 14) noted that the context/situation of modern philosophy It is characterized as the juncture of world history. Everything is in crisis Human beings cannot see what the future holds. Humans are challenged by advanced technologies that confuse them about values. life meaning Humans need clear principles about life. The relevant contexts are:
1) The Golden Age of Science both theory and applications leading to use in building communication networks, information, information, as well as the continuous development of various fields of science that use the same systems and methods as science Resulting in facilitating all forms of human life in society.
2) a decline in religious faith as a result of the development of various fields of science which religion can’t keep up with Each religion strives to improve its teachings and practices to address the crisis.
3) The problem of interpersonal relationships in society which is a crisis from a capitalist economy that causes gaps in human society, including an attempt to organize the economy, politics, and governance in various forms more resulting in conflicts in political ideology Governance and economic system leading to wars and conflicts between races/races
4) Constant effort to seek value and meaning in life. (Emphasis on humans as the center of knowledge) and return to nature holistic view of nature The pursuit of human ‘identity’ as part of nature.
5) An effort is made to define the roles and scope of each technology. to be consistent and in line with the context of their respective fields of science including the value of philosophy as an answer to the problem of “Value and Meaning of Life”
C. Problems/questions from the context examples presented above. Leads to questions/questions including:
1) What is the value and meaning of life? How to reach the goal of life will What do you use to focus on life values and meanings? including applying the philosophy as a basis and applying it to life in the midst of Friends and the environment
2) a good social, political, governance and economic system should be To help human beings to develop themselves and society that are most beneficial and consistent with human nature.
3) What is the value, meaning and identity of religion and speakers in different fields?
D. Answers,
even if the context/situation leading to problems/problems of modern philosophy, there will be various (Based on the social context) has proposed a concept that connects By analyzing the society as a whole and the person (human) by dividing the answer into broad concepts as follows:
1) Concepts based on describing reality psychic to explain the phenomenon in society There is a fundamental idea that “mind” is the highest value and characteristic of human beings. There is an idea that the ultimate reality is “spirit” (Boonmee Thankaew, 2005: 1). The mind is the highest value. It is the origin and final goal of human history. The present situation is part of our development towards the absolute reality, the Absolute Spirit.
concepts that are grouped into Emphasis on the value of the mind, including ideas of idealism (Idealism), important philosophers: Johann Gottlieb Fichte, 1762–1864, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Sheliing, 1775 – 1854) George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 – 1831) Idea of Will (Voluntarianism) Major philosophers were Arthur Schopenhauer, 1788-1860, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, 1844–1900.
2) The concept is based on explaining that Reality is an object (substance) to organize, reform social, political and economic systems. This concept begins with the study, consideration, analysis, and criticism of the ideas of previous philosophers, especially ideology and will. noted that the ideas of the two groups of philosophers above There are good principles and methods. but clinging to and misunderstanding that reality is mind. (Or the will), the principles and methods used. but change the fundamentals that explain the new reality. by suggesting that the basis of reality is Matter that develops itself is all things. Therefore, this concept is called Dialectical materialism: Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872) and Karl Marx (c) 1818 – 1883) Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895)
The next generation of philosophers in this group have tried to continue (Explain more) strictly according to Marx’s guidelines. Thus, no philosopher was more prominent than Marx. There is only the interpretation of your thoughts. (Applied) in the organization of social, political, and economic systems, especially in the Soviet Union (in the past.. under the leadership of Lenin Stalin) and China (Mao Zedong).
3) The proposed idea of systematization of philosophy is based on scientific methods. This idea was influenced by Immanuel. Kant said that human beings cannot know the truth in themselves. Therefore, it should be of interest to study only its phenomena. and use scientific methods to systematize and judge measures of philosophical knowledge. proposes the idea that reality exists as far as knowledge is known and can be judged through scientific methods. The concept of positivism and developed into a new concept of ideology. Neo-positivism includes logical positivism and language analysis. Key philosophers in this group are Auguste Comte, 1798-1857, John. N. Stuart Mill (John Stuart Mill, 1806 – 1873), Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889 – 1951, etc.
4) An idea that proposes to organize systems and principles of philosophy by compromising with various fields of science. “New realism” (Neo-realism) arises from the need to find anchors in knowing and judging the truth of philosophy. with a compromise between academics Compare the facts presented by each discipline and find formal principles. The Strongest Evidence-Based Neutral with a philosopher as a coordinator Key philosophers in this group were George Edward Moore, 1873-1958, Bertrand Russell, 1872-1969.
5) The proposed idea is to consider the truth. with the theory of evolution (Evolutionism, Evolutionism) There is the idea that the development of things. It is the result of the evolution of what already exists, i.e. matter progresses into life. Plants evolved into animals. Progressive animals are human (Kirati Boonjua 1979: 233). The key philosophers in this group were Charles Robert Darwin, 1809-1882, Tejard de Chardin. (Teilhard de Chardin, 1885 – 1955)
6) The proposed concept emphasizes practical truths in life. by bringing good results in practice is the principle of philosophy This concept is based on practical benefits in determining the truth. This concept is called “Pragmatism” (Pragmatism), the main philosophers in this group are Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), William James (William James, . 1842 – 1910) John Dewey (John Dewey, 1859 – 1952)
7) An idea proposed for a reform of the philosophical approach. based on phenomenal processes (methods) (Phenomenology) is the idea proposed to reform philosophical systems and methods. by considering the phenomenon (As a reality) proposed to reform the philosophical approach. By studying all forms of consciousness and direct experiences of the students Religious, moral, aesthetic, visual, sensory, because the center of philosophy is the study of the truth of the world and human life (Angeles, 1989: 20). , 1859 – 1938)
8) The proposed idea of starting a philosophical concept from the basis of human life is the concept known as “Existentialism” (Existentialism) that proposes the idea of considering the human being. The consideration of human beings that focus only on “essence” (essence, humanity) results in an understanding of human life far from reality. Philosophy must begin with consideration. “Existence/existence” (Existence) of the individual which has the environment and conditions that each person has accumulated with the use of freedom Decided on a lifestyle from the beginning until now. Key philosophers in this group were Soren Kierkegaard, 1813–1855, Karl Jaspers, 1883–1969). Paul Sartre (Jean Paul Sartre, 1905 – 1980), Gabriel Marcel (Gabriel Marcel, 1889 – 1973), etc.
9) Proposed ideas to consider value and the meaning of life as a person, including the concept of self-proclaimed “personalism” (Personalism), which is based on the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) who proposes the idea that Human beings have three basic characteristics: consciousness, freedom, and relationships with others.
The philosophy of personalism is The idea that philosophy should begin with a human being who is knowledgeable. Have a free spirit and have a relationship with others. It sees humans as having three important characteristics that must coexist: the uniqueness of each person. close relationship with others and the fair institutions of society (Emphasis on individual identities and friendly relationships with others. Important philosophers in this group were Immanuel Munier, 1905-1950, Immanuel Levinas, c. (1906 – 1995), Merleau Ponty (Merleau Ponty, 1908 – 1961), etc.
It is noted that personalist philosopher is a philosopher who considers human life in the middle Between Karl Marx’s (extreme restrictions on human liberty) and Jean-Paul Sartre’s (extremist human liberties) he proposes that he considers man as an individual in society human potential or internal powers, including consciousness, freedom, and relationships with others. which is the basis of human life and self-development. must have a relationship with The “supreme reality/God” is a “perfect person” so that humans can develop their lives into oneness with Him.
E. Summary of modern western philosophy, modern
philosophy, focusing on solving problems in daily life. and solving problems in various fields of science and science developed to the extreme until the lack of care for considering human beings as human beings including neglect Lack of empathy for the natural environment resulting in crises and problems that harm humans This brings awareness to the role and function of philosophy as asking questions and finding answers to life.
